Training costs for foundation models like GPT-5 and Gemini 2/3 are expected to exceed $1 billion just to develop the base model, and largest current data centers use about 200,000 chips; at this trajectory of spending, $500 billion would be consumed relatively quickly.

AI systems could be weaponized by actors like Osama bin Laden in asymmetric scenarios, enabling enormous damage before containment, requiring governance frameworks to prevent asymmetric misuse.