There are three nested levels of dependent origination: (1) causal dependence—objects depend on causes and conditions for production and dissolution; (2) parthood dependence—objects depend on their constituent parts and the collection of those parts; (3) conceptual dependence—objects depend on mental imputation and labeling based on suitable bases.

Ultimate reality in Buddhist philosophy means that phenomena are empty of inherent, independent existence because they depend on causes, conditions, constituent parts, and conceptual designation—the pen exists conventionally but cannot be found to exist from its own side.

Dependent origination in Buddhism establishes that all phenomena lack inherent, independent existence because they arise in dependence on causes, conditions, parts, and conceptual designation—nothing exists from its own side.

A pen exists conventionally with properties like shape and color, but ultimately it depends on causes (material conditions, artisan action) for production and disintegration, and on parts (cap, body, ink) for its constitution—therefore it lacks independent existence from its own side.

Just as Rovelli found that the properties of particles emerge from interactions between them rather than inhering in individual particles, Nagarjuna teaches that objects (like a pen) emerge from the interplay of their constituent parts—neither the parts alone nor the collection exists from its own side.

Emptiness in Buddhist philosophy means the absence of something specific—for example, 'the room is empty of an elephant' means the elephant doesn't exist in the room, but the absence does exist; understanding what something is requires understanding what it is not.

Because things are fundamentally interdependent (dependent on causes, parts, and conceptual designation), there is possibility for cause and effect; independence and causal connection are incompatible, so denying independence is the basis for understanding causation.

Emptiness itself is empty—even emptiness depends on the object that is empty; emptiness of the pen depends on the pen, so there is interdependence between the phenomenon and its ultimate nature, making both conventional and ultimate reality complementary aspects.

A chair (or pen) cannot be located in any of its parts (armrests, legs, etc.), nor in their collection, nor in any spatiotemporal region; yet conventionally the chair exists; this illustrates that the chair exists only through conceptual imputation on a suitable material basis, not as an independently locatable entity.

Geshe Lhakdor's reading of Nagarjuna closely parallels Rovelli's relational quantum mechanics, particularly in the idea that mind/observer is not ultimate reality but is itself empty of inherent existence and part of the interdependent whole.

Conventional and ultimate reality are two aspects of the same coin in Nagarjuna's philosophy; conventional truth (interdependence and causation) proves ultimate truth (emptiness of inherent existence), and vice versa.