In the 2003 Iraq war, Europe was divided into three layers: (1) core European countries (France, Germany) versus (2) willing coalition members (UK, Spain, Italy), (3) old Europe versus new Europe division as Central/Eastern European countries chose sides, and (4) transatlantic division; this division was more severe than current disagreements over Iran.
factualpending
Speaker
Natalie TocciEvidence Quote
“Back then, there was at least a sort of three layers of division. There was a division between core European countries, France, Germany stood against UK, Spain, Italy.”
Source
Nathalie Tocci and Matthias Matthijs: Are Europe and the United States Finally Heading For Divorce?— Foreign AffairsCreated: 8/12/2026, 6:08:35 PM
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